ECTS 2015 Users’ Guide

ECTS 2015

Introduction

The European Credit Transfer and Accumulation System (ECTS) is a tool of the European Higher Education Area (EHEA) for making studies and courses more transparent and thus helping to enhance the quality of higher education.

ECTS was instituted in 1989, within the Erasmus programme, as a way of transfer-ring credits that students earned during their studies abroad into credits that counted towards their degree, on their return to studying in their home institu-tion. In the following years, it came to be used not only for transferring credits, on the basis of workload and achieved learn-ing outcomes, but also for accumulating them in institutions’ degree programs. ECTS helps in the design, description and delivery of programmes, makes it possible to integrate different types of learning in a lifelong learning perspective, and facilitates the mobility of students by easing the process of recognising qualifications and periods of study. ECTS can be applied to all programs, whatever the mode of delivery (classroom-based, work-based, distance learning) or the status of students (full-time, part-time), and to all kinds of learning contexts (formal, non-formal, and informal).

The ECTS Users’ Guide offers guidelines for implementing ECTS and links to useful supporting documents. Following the request from Bologna ministers in Bucharest (Bucharest Communiqué, 2012), the ECTS Users’ Guide of 2009 has been revised in order to strengthen the ‘meaningful implementation of learning outcomes’ in the EHEA. The Guide takes forward the objective of ministers to ‘call on institutions to further link study credits with both learning outcomes and student workload and to include the attainment of learning outcomes in assessment procedures’. This revised version is based on a solid foundation of work done in recent years, both within the Bologna Process and in individual countries, to help the academic community and other stakeholders in higher education to move in the direction of the changes advocated by the Bologna Process. The revised Guide takes into account recent developments in the Bologna Process, such as the establishment of the EHEA, the consolidation of lifelong learning, the paradigm shift from teacher-centered to student-centered higher education, the increasing use of learning outcomes, and the development of new modes of learning and teaching. It includes a specific focus on programme design and delivery, and builds

on the experience of higher education institutions in using qualifications frameworks and in applying ECTS principles in academic practice. The guide is offered to students and other learners and academic and administrative staff in higher education institutions, as well as to employers, education providers, and all other interested stakeholders. For ease of reading, the term ‘student’ is used to refer to all learners in higher education institutions (whether full-time or part-time, engaged in distance, on-campus, or work-based learning, pursuing a qualification, or following standalone educational units or courses). The revised guide has been written by a working group of practitioners appointed by Bologna countries and stakeholders’ associations. It has been submitted for consultation to stakeholders’ associations, experts from countries in the EHEA, and the Bologna Follow-up Group. The European Commission has coordinated the drafting and consultation process. Finally, the Guide has been adopted by ministers for higher education of the European Higher Education Area in 2015 at the Yerevan ministerial conference. It is, therefore, the official Guide for the use of ECTS.

ECTS key features

ECTS key features

ECTS is a learner-centered system for credit accumulation and transfer, based on the principle of transparency of the learning, teaching and assessment processes. Its objective is to facilitate the planning, delivery, and evaluation of study programmes and student mobility by recognising learning achievements and qualifications and periods of learning.

ECTS credits express the volume of learning based on the defined learning outcomes and their associated workload. 60 ECTS credits are allocated to the learning outcomes and associated workload of a full-time academic year or its equivalent, which normally comprises a number of educational components to which credits (on the basis of the learning outcomes and workload) are allocated. ECTS credits are generally expressed in whole numbers. Learning outcomes are statements of what the individual knows, understands, and is able to do on completion of a learning process. The achievement of learning outcomes has to be assessed through procedures based on clear and transparent criteria. Learning outcomes are attributed to individual educational components and to programs as a whole. They are also used in European and national qualifications frameworks to describe the level of the individual qualification.

Workload is an estimation of the time the individual typically needs to complete all learning activities such as lectures, seminars, projects, practical work, work placements, and individual study required to achieve the defined learning outcomes in formal learning environments. The correspondence of the full-time workload of an academic year to 60 credits is often formalized by national legal provisions. In most cases, workload ranges from 1,500 to 1,800 hours for an academic year, which means that one credit corresponds to 25 to 30 hours of work. It should be recognised that this represents the typical workload and that for individual students the actual time to achieve the learning outcomes will vary.

Allocation of credits in ECTS is the process of assigning a number of credits to qualifications, degree programs, or single educational components. Credits are allocated to entire qualifications or programs according to national legislation or practice, where appropriate, and with reference to national and/or European qualifications frameworks. They are allocated to educational components, such as course units, dissertations, work-based learning and work placements, taking as a basis the allocation of 60 credits per full-time academic year, according to the estimated workload required to achieve the defined learning outcomes for each component. Awarding credits in ECTS is the act of formally granting students and other learners the credits that are assigned to the qualification and/or its components if they achieve the defined learning outcomes. National authorities should indicate which institutions have the right to award ECTS credits. Credits are awarded to individual students after they have completed the required learning activities and achieved the defined learning outcomes, as evidenced by appropriate assessment. If students and other learners have achieved learning outcomes in other formal, nonformal, or informal learning contexts or timeframes, credits may be awarded through assessment and recognition of these learning outcomes.

Accumulation of credits in ECTS is the process of collecting credits awarded for achieving the learning outcomes of educational components in formal contexts and for other learning activities carried out in informal and non-formal contexts. A student can accumulate credits in order to:

• obtain qualifications, as required by the degree-awarding institution;
• document personal achievements for lifelong learning purposes.

The question of whether to refer to ‘students’ or ‘learners’ was discussed in depth in the working group and with stakeholders. The position reached recognizes and welcomes the fact that higher education is moving towards more flexible provision; it also recognizes the factrecognizes higher education systems are organised around provision of formal programmes to a clearly defined student body. While it was deemed premature to use only the term ‘learner’ in the Guide, the term ‘student’ is used to encompass all learners in higher education institutions (whether full-time or part-time, engaged in distance, on-campus, or work-based learning, pursuing a qualification, or following stand-alone educational units or courses).

Transfer of credits is the process of hav-ing credits awarded in one context (programme, institution) recognized in another formal context for the purpose of obtaining a qualification. Credits awarded to students in one programme may be transferred from an institution to be accumulated in another programme offered by the same or another institution. Credit transfer is the key to successful study mobility. Institutions, faculties, and departments may make agreements which guarantee automatic recognition and transfer of credits.

ECTS documentation: The use of ECTS credits is facilitated and quality enhanced by the supporting documents (Course Catalogue, Learning Agreement, Transcript of Records, and Work Placement Certificate). ECTS also contributes to transparency in other documents such as the Diploma Supplement.

ECTS and the European Higher Education Area (EHEA)

ECTS and the European Higher Education Area (EHEA)
In 1999 the Bologna Declaration included ECTS among the main objectives to be achieved by countries participating in the Bologna Process. Through the reforms implemented in the course of the Process, ECTS has become a key tool of the European Higher Education Area (EHEA).

ECTS is adopted as the national credit system in most countries of the EHEA. In other regions of the world, it is increasingly used by institutions or interacts successfully with local credit systems3 based on comparable criteria, thus playing a role in the growing global dimension of education.

Within the EHEA, ECTS increases the transparency and readability of the educational process and thus plays an effective role in stimulating change and modernisation, because its implementation encourages the paradigm shift from a teacher-centered to a learner-centered approach, which is, underthe term of Student-Centered Learning (SCL), recognized as an underlying principle of the EHEA.

By using learning outcomes and workload in curriculum design and delivery, ECTS places the student at the centre of the educational process. Moreover, using credits makes it easier to create and document flexible learning pathways, thus allowing students greater autonomy and responsibility.

Due to its outcome-based approach, the use of ECTS serves other purposes of the EHEA:

• It facilitates the recognition of prior learning and experience and encourages a higher level of completion and wider participation in lifelong learning;
• It establishes a closer link between educational programmes and societal requirements and enhances interaction with all stakeholders, including the world of work and wider society;
• It facilitates mobility within an institution or country, from institution to institution, from country to country, and between different educational sectors and contexts of learning (i.e., formal, non-formal, informal, and work-based learning) through recognition and credit transfer.

In national legislation the use of ECTS can be a requirement for the accreditation of higher education programmes or qualifications.

Nota Bene

Student-centered learning (SCL) is a process of qualitative transformation for students and other learners in a learning environment, aimed at enhancing their autonomy and critical ability through an outcome-based approach.

The SCL concept can be summarised into the following elements:

• Reliance on active rather than passive learning;
• Emphasis on critical and analytical learning and understanding;
• Increased responsibility and accountability on the part of the student;
• Increased autonomy of the student;
• A reflective approach to the learning and teaching process on the part of both the student and the teacher.

ECTS for programme design, delivery and monitoring

ECTS for programme design, delivery and monitoring

This section deals with the design of educational programmes by higher education institutions (HEIs) or by other providers. The use of ECTS credits aids programme design by providing a tool which improves transparency and helps to engender a more flexible approach to curriculum design and development.

• From an institutional perspective, designing a programme means planning a curriculum and its components in credits, indicating learning outcomes and associated workload, learning activities and teaching methods and assessment procedures/criteria. The institutional credit framework should cater for the needs of different programmes and support inter- and multi-disciplinary approaches.
• The use of ECTS in HEIs requires both an institutional credit framework based on institutional regulations and a profound understanding of the system by each member of the academic staff. Some institutions foster this understanding by regular training forstaff members. Team-based decisions on  programme design enhance the coherenceof the programme.

Nota Bene

An independent learner may accumulate the credits required for the achievement of a qualification through a variety of learning modes. She/he may acquire the required knowledge, skills and competence in formal, nonformal and informal contexts: this can be the result of an intentional decision or the outcome of different learning activities over time. The learner may select educational components without immediate orientation towards a formal qualification. ECTS supports this process, as described in Section 5 on Lifelong Learning.

The following steps have been identified as helpful in designing programmes.

The programme context
When a new programme is developed, the first decision typically concerns the level of the qualification to be awarded, which is defined on the basis of the relevant national legislation and existing qualifications frameworks (European, national, sectoral, institutional). It will be evident that not all learning outcomes are at the same level—hence the full implementation of a credit system requires level descriptors.

Nota Bene

There are two European Qualifications Frameworks: the Framework for Qualifications of the European Higher Education Area (QF-EHEA) and the European Qualifications Framework for Lifelong Learning of the EU (EQFLLL). Both frameworks use learning outcomes to describe qualifications (e.g. Bachelor, Master, Doctor) and are compatible with each other as far as Higher Education is concerned (QF-EHEA cycles 1, 2 and 3 correspond to EQF-LLL levels 6, 7 and 8) and cover qualifications at ISCED levels 6, 7, 8. In the QF-EHEA, three main cycles, as well as a short cycle, are identified and described by the so-called Dublin Descriptors in terms of applying knowledge and understanding, making judgments, communication skills, and learning to learn. The short, first and second cycles are also characterised by credit ranges:

• Short cycle qualifications typically include approximately 120 ECTS credits.
• First cycle qualifications typically include 180 or 240 ECTS credits.
• Second cycle qualifications typically include 90 or 120 ECTS credits, with a minimum of 60 ECTS credits at the level of the second cycle.
• The use of ECTS in the third cycle varies.

Nota Bene

The EQF-LLL describes ‘levels of qualification’ (without indicating any credit ranges) – to provide a common reference framework which assists in comparing the national qualifications systems, frameworks and their levels. It is based on eight levels.

• As an instrument for the promotion of lifelong learning, the EQF encompasses general and adult education, vocational education and training as well as higher education.
• The eight levels cover the entire span of qualifications from those achieved at the end of compulsory education to those awarded at the highest level of academic and professional or vocational education and training.
• Each level should in principle be attainable by way of a variety of education and career paths.
• Learning outcomes are specified in three categories – as knowledge, skills and competence. This signals that qualifications – in different combinations – capture a broad scope of learning outcomes, including theoretical knowledge, practical and technical skills, and social competences where the ability to work with others will be crucial.

The different cycles of QF-EHEA are referenced to the levels of EQF-LLL as follows:

• Short-cycle qualifications at level 5
• First-cycle qualifications at level 6
• Second-cycle qualifications at level 7
• Third-cycle qualifications at level 8

National education systems may include levels other than those included in the overarching frameworks as long as national frameworks are self-certified and referenced against the QF-EHEA and the EQF. For example, while the EQF comprises 8 levels, the number of levels in national frameworks currently ranges from 7 to 12. Therefore, the fact that short cycle qualifications are in-cluded in the QF-EHEA does not oblige countries to include such qualifica-tions in their national frameworks but it gives explicit recognition to the fact that many national frameworks do include short cycle qualifications.

The QF-EHEA and the EQF provide overar-ching frameworks against which national and institutional frameworks and descrip-tors should be calibrated. National frameworks are normally more detailed than these overarching frame-works, reflecting the range of tertiary qual-ifications offered in the country. Higher Education Institutions which imple-ment ECTS as a credit system will need an institutional framework which correlates with the national and international frame-works. The institutional framework will in-dicate how ECTS credits are to be used, nor-mally specifying a minimum credit value for an educational component to facilitate in ter/multi-disciplinary programmes (which will be created by combining educational components from across a range of disci-plines). European and national frameworks indicate the level of the final qualification.

Thus, institutions, recognising that not all credits acquired in progressing towards a qualification are at the same level (learning outcomes achieved in the third year of a Bachelor degree, for example, will tend to be more complex than those achieved in the first year) – may specify intermediate credit levels with appropriate descriptors which (together with progression rules) will help students in progressing along their learning pathways. Before designing the programme in detail, it should be set in the context of institu-tional and departmental mission state-ments, professional specifications (regula-tions, requirements), and the institutional academic framework for credit allocation. It is also recommended to carry out a needs analysis and to consult with stakeholders (employers, graduates, society at large) to ascertain the demand for the programme.

The programme profile

The profile presents the distinctive features of the programme (Lockhoff et al., 2010). It indicates the field(s) of study (which may be expressed in ISCED-F codes), the level of the programme, the main focus, the key learning outcomes expected on completion, the learning environment and the main learning, teaching and assessment activities. An ef-fective programme profile will make it clear to students and stakeholders what generic and subject specific competences will be developed and the employability potential of the programme. For this purpose, it is recommended that the profile is defined in consultation with relevant stakeholders (such as academic peers, social partners, employers, graduates, and student representatives) and is presented in a clear and transparent way. The profile should be part of the programme description included in the Course Catalogue.

Nota Bene

Across the EHEA, the terms ‘learning outcomes’ and ‘competence’ are used with different shades of meaning and in somewhat different frames of reference.

For the purpose of this Guide:

Competence means ‘the proven ability to use knowledge, skills and personal, social and/or methodological abilities, in work or study situations and in professional and personal development. In the context of the European Qualifications Framework, competence is described in terms of responsibility and autonomy’ (Recommendation 2008/C 111/01). Competences can be generic or subject–specific. Fostering competences is the object of a process of learning and of an educational programme.

Learning outcomes express the level of competence attained by the student and verified by assessment. They are ‘statements of what a learner knows, understands and is able to do on completion of a learning process’ (Ibid.). They are formulated by academic staff, involving students and other stakeholders. In order to facilitate assessment, these statements need to be verifiable.

The programme learning outcomes
The programme learning outcomes are based on the programme profile and describe what a student knows, understands and is able to do on completion of the programme.

Formulating programme learning outcomes
Considerable care needs to be taken in formulating learning outcomes. The follow-ing non-exhaustive list provides a set of guidelines which has proved to be helpful.

1. The learning outcomes should adequately reflect the context, level, scope and content of the programme.
2. The statements of learning outcomes have to be succinct and not too detailed.
3. The learning outcomes have to be mutually consistent.
4. The learning outcomes should be easily understandable and verifiable in terms of what the student has actually achieved at the end of the programme.
5. The learning outcomes have to be achievable within the specified workload.
6. The learning outcomes have to be linked with appropriate learning activities, assessment methods and assessment criteria.
7. There are no rules on the ideal number of learning outcomes at programme level. Experience suggests that between 10 and 12 is appropriate.
8. A widely accepted way of formulating learning outcomes is based on three essential elements.
   1. Use an active verb to express what students are expected to know and be able to do (e.g. graduates can ‘describe’, ‘implement’, ‘draw conclusions’, ‘assess’, ‘plan’).
   2. Specify what this outcome refers to (object or skill e.g. can explain the ‘function of hardware-components’, or can present the ‘design of a living-room by hand’).
   3. Specify the way of demonstrating the achievement of learning outcomes (e.g. ‘to give an overview of the materials most often used in electro-engineering’; ‘to develop a research design by applying up-to-date scientific methods’, etc.).

The programme structure and allocation of credits
The programme profile is broken down into educational components, which may consist of single or several modules, other types of course unit, work and clinical placements, research projects, laboratory work, and other relevant learning activities. They may also include social and community activities (for example, tutoring and mentoring) provided they fit the pro-gramme learning outcomes and carry credits. Learning outcomes, with related assessment strategies and assessment criteria, should be defined for each educational component. The learning outcomes of the programme and of its educational components are often mapped to demonstrate their mutual reinforcement. Many institutions use a matrix to correlate the learning outcomes of the degree programme with those of its educational components.

Learning outcomes in educational components
The principles for formulating learning outcomes for educational components are the same as for programme learning outcomes. There are no absolute rules on the ideal number of learning outcomes for an educational component. It will depend on the level and the nature of the unit, as well as the estimated workload. However, good practice suggests that the number should be limited and general experience indicates that 6 to 8 is an appropriate number. The annex contains a recommended literature list with guidelines on learning outcomes.

After the constituent parts of the programme have been identified, the overall structure should be outlined and credits allocated to each component, on the basis of its learning outcomes and associated workload, taking into account that 60 credits correspond to a full-time-equiva-lent academic year.When educational components are of regular size (e.g. 5, 10, 15) they are often called ‘modules’. In a programme made up of modules (a modularised structure), half credits may be used when justified (for example, in the case of 4 modules per semester), but other decimals should be avoided. It is helpful if the institution determines the basic credit currency in terms of the minimum number of credits for a component, as this will facilitate collaboration on curricula across subjects and faculties. Establishing ‘mobility windows’ in the curriculum will facilitate learning mobility. Mobility windows may be prescribed both in content and timing in the programme design or may allow flexibility in timing and in content for the individual student. Mobility windows are preferably not used to replicate what would be studied at home but to allow students to benefit from diverse educational experiences in other settings.

Progression requirements must be explicit if students are to navigate the programme successfully and obtain the intended qualification. Progression requirements may include, inter alia, prerequisites, co-requisites, and recommendations. Progression rules may be expressed in terms of the numbers of credits or credit ranges required at different stages within a programme of study (e.g., a minimum number of credits required to pass from one academic year/semester to another). They may also be formulated in terms of detailed rules on what components must and/or can be taken at what stage and of what level (e.g., compulsory courses, optional courses and prerequisites).

Independent learners joining a formal programme should receive appropriate counseling/advice to support them in complying with progression requirements. Where relevant, this counseling should include recognition of prior learning and experience. Flexible programme structures allow students’ choice, including by incorporating possibilities to access new modes of learning and teaching.

Learning, teaching and assessment
Higher education institutions need to define their learning and teaching objectives in relation to their study programmes and how they should be delivered and assessed.

General principles for learning, teaching and assessment
Some general principles concerning learn-ing, teaching and assessment should be taken into account when delivering a pro-gramme of study, regardless of the mode of learning and teaching.

Open dialogue and participation
The student-centered approach requires an open dialogue and reflective feedback between students, teachers and the relevant administrators, through which their needs and aspirations can be expressed and discussed. All stakeholders should be involved in constructive discussion of programme design and delivery. Student representa-ives should participate in such discussions with full voting powers.

Transparency and reliability
The Course Catalogue should provide reliable, up-to-date and quality-assured information on degree programs as well as on single educational components. It should provide an accurate description of the degree programme, including all details: structure, components, learning outcomes, workload, learning/teaching approaches, assessment methods, assessment criteria, and progression rules.

Consistency
The academic staff responsible for delivering the programme and its components should ensure consistency between the learning outcomes stated in the programme, the learning and teaching activities and the assessment procedures. This constructive alignment (Biggs, 2003) between learning outcomes, learning activities and assessment is an essential requirement for educational programmes.

Flexibility
A flexible programme structure is essential to allow for students’ choices and meet different needs, e.g. opportunity should be given for developing personal learning pathways, and optional activities should beoffered. A flexible organization of learning, teaching, and assessment activities, including flexibility in the timetable and more opportunities for independent learning, is essential for accommodating different learning styles. This widens the choices of learning and teaching materials and activities and opens up opportunities for students with different profiles or needs (e.g., people with caring responsibilities or people with disabilities). The integration of digital technologies in higher education provision is having a significant impact on learning and teaching approaches. The allocation of credits to learning outcomes, which are achieved through new modes of delivery made possible by technology, are based on the same principles as the allocation of credits to learning outcomes for traditional educational components.

Appropriate assessment of achievements
Credits are awarded when appropriate assessment shows that the defined learning outcomes have been achieved at the relevant level. If the student has not achieved the learning outcomes, no credits will be awarded. The number of credits awarded to the student who demonstrates the achievement of learning outcomes is the same as the number of credits allocated tothe component. Assessment methods include the whole range of written, oral and practical tests/examinations, projects, and portfolios that are used to evaluate the student’s progress and ascertain the achievement of the learning outcomes of a course unit or module, whereas assessment criteria are descriptions of what the student is expected to do, in order to demonstrate that a learning outcome has been achieved.In order to be appropriate, the assessment methods and criteria chosen for an educational component have to be consistent with the learning outcomes that have been defined for it and with the learning activities that have taken place.

Nota Bene

Doctoral education is in the process of a change – with a greater variety of routes to a doctorate and the recognition of the principle that high-level training is helpful to develop third cycle generic (transferable) and subject-specific competences. In some countries and institutions, ECTS is also used in the third cycle. ECTS credits are either allocated to the whole degree programme, or to some/all educational components (e.g. taught course units). If ECTS is used, the guidelines contained in this ECTS Users’ Guide should apply, taking into account the specific nature of doctoral degrees. The related information should be included in the course catalogue. Defining learning outcomes for specific milestones in the third cycle could in some cases allow candidates who interrupt their studies to have some certification of what they have achieved up to that point. It can also be valuable in demonstrating to future employers the achievement of specific high-level generic and subject-specific competencies.

Monitoring of credit allocation

The programme is monitored to establish whether the credit allocation, the defined learning outcomes and the estimated workload are achievable, realistic, and adequate. Monitoring can be managed in different ways through questionnaires, focus groups, or interviews, or by monitoring the results achieved. Whatever method is used, feedback from students, staff, and, where appropriate, stakeholders should constitute an essential element for checking and revising credit allocation. Data on completion times and the assessment results of programmes and their components should also be used. It is important to inform students and staff about the purpose of the monitoring exercise, and how it will be carried out to ensure accurate answers and a high response rate. If the information gathered reveals a discrepancy between the workload foreseen and the time actually taken by the majority of students to achieve the defined learning outcomes, it will be necessary to revise the workload, credits, learning outcomes or learning and teaching activities and methods. This could also involve redesigning the study programme and its educational components. The revision should be done as soon as possible without creating problems for those who are currently taking the programme and should be communicated to those who had participated in the monitoring exercise in order to foster an ongoing, cooperative feedback culture in the institution.

ECTS for mobility and credit recognition

ECTS for mobility and credit recognition

This section deals with credit transfer and recognition in general, which takes place both in degree mobility and credit mobility.

Successful learning mobility requires academic recognition and transfer of credits. Recognition of credits is the process through which an institution certifies that learning outcomes achieved and assessed in another institution satisfy the requirements of one of the programmes they offer. Given the diversity of programmes and HEIs, it is unlikely that the credits and learning outcomes of a single educational component in two different programmes will be identical. This is even more the case in recognising learning from other learning contexts (for example vocational education and training). An open and flexible approach to the recognition of credits obtained in another context, including learning mobility, is therefore recommended, based on compatibility of learning outcomes rather than equivalence of course contents. In practice, recognition means that the number of credits gained for compatible learning outcomes achieved in another context will replace the number of credits that are allocated for compatible learning outcomes at the awarding institution. Institutions should make their recognition policies known and easily accessible.

Degree mobility
Degree programmes can vary in the number of ECTS credits they include (see Nota Bene box in Section 3.1). For the purposes of recognition of qualifications for further studies, the difference in the number of ECTS credits gained after successful completion of a qualification are not a consideration. The programme learning outcomes should be the main factor to be taken into account. This means, for example, that a comparable Bachelor degree should be recognised for the purpose of consideration for admission to a Master’s programme, independently of whether it is based on 180 or 240 ECTS credits.

The Lisbon Recognition Convention
The Lisbon Recognition Convention, which entered into force in 1999, provides a legal framework for cross-border academic recognition.

The Convention stipulates:
‘36. Qualifications of approximately equal level may show differences in terms of content, profile, workload, quality and learning outcomes. In the assessment of foreign qualifications, these differences should be considered in a flexible way, and only substantial differences in view of the purpose for which recognition is sought (e.g. academic or de facto professional recognition) should lead to partial recognition or non-recognition of the foreign qualifications.

37. Recognition of foreign qualifications should be granted unless a substantial difference can be demonstrated between the qualification for which recognition is requested and the relevant qualification of the State in which recognition is sought.’ The European Area of Recognition Manual (EAR Manual, 2012) gives the following explanation for the interpretation of substantial difference: ‘By focusing on the five key elements that together make up a qualification (level, workload, quality, profile and learning outcomes) and by taking substantial differences into account, competent recognition authorities have transformed their approach from expecting foreign qualifications to be almost exactly the same as those offered in their own countries, to focusing on ‘recognition’ by accepting non-substantial differences.

Substantial differences are differences between the foreign qualification and the national qualification that are so significant, that they would most likely prevent the applicant from succeeding in the desired activity, such as further study, research activities or employment.
The burden of proof of a substantial difference lies with the competent recognition authority of the host country and the accompanying guidelines are as follows:

• Not every difference should be considered to be ‘substantial’.
• the existence of a substantial difference entails no obligation to deny recognition to the foreign qualification;
• the difference should be substantial in relation to the function of the qualification and the purpose for which recognition is sought.’

For more on the topic of substantial differences, see E. Stephen Hunt and Sjur Bergan (2010).

Recognition of professional qualifications
EU Directive 2013/55/EU amends Directive 2005/36/EC on the recognition of professional qualifications. It allows ECTS to be used as an additional means of expressing full-time course duration in the case of the seven ‘sectoral’ professions. The obligation to express course duration in terms of full-time academic years and total numbers of hours will remain for medical doctors, general care nurses, dentists, and midwives. For veterinary surgeons, pharmacists and architects, the obligation covers only full-time academic years. Similarly, ECTS may also be used in levels (d) and (e) of the qualifications grid used in the General System, which covers all other qualification-based regulated professions in the EU and the EEA.

The new Directive has extended its scope to the recognition of work placements which are necessary to have access to a regulated profession. These can be undertaken in any EU/EEA member state, irrespective of where the qualification is delivered, and enjoy full recognition. Recital 27 states that the ‘recognition of a professional traineeship completed in another Member State should be based on a clear written description of learning objectives and assigned tasks, to be determined by the trainee’s supervisor in the host Member State.’ Article 55a requires Competent Authorities to ‘publish guidelines on the organisation and recognition of professional traineeships carried out in another Member State or in a third country, in particular on the role of the supervisor of the traineeship.’ Finally, the new Directive introduces common training frameworks based on ‘common sets of knowledge, skills and competences’ required in the systems of education and training applicable in at least one third of member states. These curricula may be proposed by representative professional bodies operating at EU or national level, or by Competent Authorities. They are to be referenced to the European Qualifications Framework and are free to make full use of ECTS.

Credit mobility
ECTS was designed to facilitate learning mobility between institutions for short-term study periods (‘credit mobility’). As this Guide makes clear, ECTS has developed and been adopted for purposes of credit accumulation but it still plays a vital role in student mobility – facilitating the transfer and recognition of the achievements of the mobile student. In ECTS, the following supporting documents help facilitate credit recognition for the purpose of mobility:

• Course Catalogue
• Learning Agreement
• Transcript of Records
• Traineeship Certificate

These documents provide information on the learning outcomes achieved, on which the qualification-awarding institution can make decisions on credit recognition and transfer.Please see chapter 7 of the European Recognition Manual for Higher Education Institutions (2014) for details. The section includes a useful flowchart on the recognition of periods of study abroad.

The golden rule of recognition of credit mobility within the framework of inter-institutional agreements All credits gained during the period of study abroad or during the virtual mobility – as agreed in the Learning Agreement and confirmed by the Transcript of Records—should be transferred without delay and counted towards the student’s degree without any additional work by or assessment of the student.

Before the credit mobility period

In order to facilitate the organization of credit mobility and its recognition, the three parties involved—the student, the sending institution, and the receiving institution or organization/enterprise—should agree on the programme abroad. They should formalize this in a learning agreement, to be signed by the three parties before the start of the mobility period. The Learning Agreement is intended togive the student the confirmation that the credits he/she successfully achieves during the mobility period will be recognized. The Erasmus+ programme provides templates for the Learning Agreement for studies and for traineeships for institutions participating in the programme. It also provides guidance for institutions on how to use the templates and sets out specific deadlines institutions need to comply with.

The educational components to be completed during the mobility period should normally not be selected on the basis of their equivalence with single educational components offered at the sending institution. The learning outcomes of the whole programme of study abroad should be compatible with or complementary to the learning outcomes of the home degree programme for which recognition is to be granted after the study period abroad. This makes it easier for the credits gained in the receiving institution to replace flexibly an equivalent number of credits in the sending institution’s degree programme. It is also possible to record the mobility period as a whole, instead of recording it component by component.

The learning agreement should identify a set of suitable educational components to be taken at the receiving institution and how they will be integrated into the programme of the sending institution. The number of credits to be gained at the receiving institution should be proportional to the time of study abroad. The student isexpected to take educational componentsof 60 ECTS per full-time academic year.The receiving institution commits to register the incoming student in the planned educational components, verifying that these components are available for the foreseen mobility period.Once it is signed by all three parties, thestudent isgexpected can be modified thereafter, if necessary, by agreement of all three parties concerned.

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